By: Tamisan Latherow and Linde de Vries
FSE-30306 Analysis and Design of Organic Farming Systems
Executive Summary
In this paper we explored the possibilities of integrating several multi-functional aspects to Ter Linde. Our primary goal is to make the system more diverse and thereby more resilient, but also to work within the farmer’s dreams of creating space for tourists, more permanent employment opportunities, better soil and water availability, and more returns on his crops. We have focused on these throughout the research and pinned down several features we believe can cover these topics: Alternative Fodder Production, Intensification of Rotation: Pasturage and Crops, Berry Production, and Flower Strip Utilization.
We first calculate the required livestock units for a 60 cow herd of Friesian-Holstein mix cattle with a restocking rate of 25%. This number was mentioned during the appreciative interview and became our starting point. This gives us a LU rate of 77.1 which requires a minimum of 48.2 hectares of good quality pasturage. It is within this context that we look at feed stocks in this report. In Alternative Fodder Production, we decided on adding in nitrogen fixing plants that can double as winter feed.
Woody fodder has been found to improve ruminal protein digestion, lessen the risk of parasitic outbreaks and lower methane emissions (Vandermeulen, Ramírez-Restrepo, Beckers, Claessens, & Bindelle, 2018). We recommend adding in Willow, Alder, and Black Walnut trees, all of which can produce fodder, but also fix nitrogen, create shade areas and windbreaks, and contribute to soil fertility and biodiversity. We also recommend adding in Russian Pea Shrub, a legume bush that can be grown as a hedge and used as winter feed. It too fixes nitrogen and improves soil fertility.
To manage the pasture for optimal results, we researched the addition of Seaberry Bushes as hedges to create smaller pastures within the fields. This will allow for electric fencing to be removed. Additional benefits of the plant are it’s nitrogen fixing capabilities, the fact that it handles drought and a higher salinity level than most shrubs, the food and shelter for birds and wildlife (natural pest management) that are provided by its foliage, and the potential for use as winter forage. The most useful benefit is a harvestable crop of a superfood in the form of its berries. This creates an additional cash crop for the farmer with a current market rate close to 8E a kg (twice that of blueberries).
A combination of herbs added into the pasture grass mix will allow cattle to graze their medicine and decrease parasites, bacterial infections, and stimulate lactation. Reports show that a significant percentage of chicory in pastures reduces the nematode burden in sheep, yet no literature was mentioned for cattle, however, other sources showed treating cattle with black cumin and curcuma herbs increased milk yield (2.83-4.86% respectively) while curcuma decreased occurrences of mastitis.
With the conversion of fields 10 & 11 to berry production, we took a look at the market rates for various berries and their subsequent costs. Raspberries had the highest market rate, but also required the most work. Blueberries had the best overall return, with a decent market rate and minimal labour required. Seaberries had a market rate of twice that of blackberries, almost 8 euros/kg, and can show a great return for the investment if harvested from the fields.
Beneficial insects such as bees pollinate up to 84% of European crops and have been shown to increase their commercial value by 39% relative to wind pollination alone. To this end, we recommend planting flower strips designed for pollinators along all crop boundaries to induce these insects. Since bumblebees fly only up to 300 meters from their hives, it is important to have a variety of strips around the farm.
Finally, we discuss the use of green cover crops between cash crops. Specifically in the potato-sugar beet rotation we recommend adding in a rotation of white mustard. This flowering brassica doubles as a cash crop if the seeds are harvested and sold. Furthermore if followed by a crop of sugar beets, the nematode population can be decreased 70-90%. After reviewing the nitrogen uptake, it is recommended that two applications of manure be applied in this rotation, farm yard manure before the potatoes and slurry before the beets. This solves a nitrogen deficit in the field and extends the soil life.
Finally, we looked at the whole farm system. Integration of flowers around the fields brings in pollinators and beneficial insects, hedges provide shade, structure, fodder, and soil benefits, and berry production brings in revenue.
Introduction
For ten days in June 2018, our team worked on research covering the conditions and requirements of soil, crops, animals and the landscape at Loverendale-Ter Linde. We worked in the field and laboratory as well as spoke to the farmer in an appreciative inquiry to learn more about his dreams and visions for the future of the farm.
In this redesign report we explore the possibility of improving the margins on the Loverendale-Ter Linde farm. A well thought-out design and implementation should be able to minimize the crop yield loss of the space that is being used for diversification (Van Vooren, Reubens, Broekx, De Frenne, & Nelissen, 2017), in this redesign a first attempt is made to do so. Our hypothesis is that by improving diversity in a well-managed way, applicable ecosystem services can be improved, thereby increasing the yield of crop lands and maximizing the quality of the pastures. This should make room for us to make use of the margin space around the crops in a multi-functional way and provide a greater return of revenue.
Common knowledge states that there seems to exist a trade-off between diversification, with the result of beneficial ecosystem services and conventional systems with higher productivity levels (Kremen & Miles, 2012). In Kremen and Miles’s review, they found that diversified farming systems are more resistant and resilient to climate change and enhance weed control and habitat for predators and pollinators. Moreover they are beneficial for the development of biodiversity, maintenance of a higher soil quality, carbon storage, water holding capacity in surface soils and better efficiency in energy-use (Holland, et al., 2017).
Other than contributing to soil fertility, diversification of the landscape has also been correlated with quantity and diversity of natural enemies, although conclusions need to be drawn carefully, since pest abundances do not necessarily show a significant response to landscape complexity (Chaplin-Kramer, O'Rourke, Blitzer, & Kremen, 2011). The abundance of pollinators has been found to depend on both wider landscapes as well as diversity in the fields of the farm itself (Kennedy, et al., 2013).
Problem Description
It became apparent that many of the farm components are interconnected, such as the shortage of freshwater, financial situation and condition of the soil. Non-tangible factors, such as the farmer’s passion for his cattle and the people, need to be taken into account as well as these impact how much time, energy and interest the farmer has in making changes to the farm.
Due to the financial situation it seems necessary for the farm to engage in a heavy cropping rotation. The consequence of this includes declining soil quality, which may have the long term effect of potential yield and profit losses. This then provides an unsustainable system in need of review and alteration.
Ultimately, the farmer wants to work on developing the farm into a flourishing establishment that can serve as an example for other farms and carry the name of Loverendale with pride. It is with this in mind that we propose the following alterations to Loverendale-Ter Linde.
Objectives
The objective of this redesign is to develop a farming system in which there is more room for biodiversity in the ecosystems, an increase in market access to the local market and involvement of the 10,000+ tourists Zeeland sees each year. Another objective is to provide work throughout the year for full-time and seasonal workers.
Increased Biodiversity for Health and Welfare
Our primary, or overarching, goal is to create a more diverse farming system to support the various farming components and ecosystem services provided by the plants and animals. These components should support each other creating a more resilient and diverse farming system. Since the new design diversifies crops as well as landscapes the farm does not rely on one cash crop, allowing room for intensification/diversification and thus higher yields.
Market Access, Involving Tourists, and Providing Year-Round Work
A primary goal of the farmer’s is to increase his access to new markets and provide more opportunities for interaction with visitors to the farm. This can be accomplished by creating a U-pick berry component to the farmscape. The berries can be picked by tourists can allow for more opportunities for interaction with the farm while berry bushes within the pastures can be maintained and harvested by employees creating year-round and additional seasonal work.
Approach
Starting with the idea of diversifying the farm, we drew the original map of the farm and then walked the primary fields looking for ways we could maximize the potential of each field. We created an initial plan and presented it to the farmer who gave us his feedback and informed us of some plans we were unaware of. Upon return to Wageningen we completed a literature review and correlated the various pieces of data into a primary document. The farmer plans on incorporating berries into fields 10 and 11 as of next year, which we incorporated into our planning. Research was done on what trees and shrubs that can be used for multi-functional purposes, such as alternative feed or other products that can enhance the profit, cattle health, fix nitrogen, contribute to soil organic matter (SOM), hold surface water levels, and can serve as a habitat for natural enemies and pollinators. We made use of a more qualitative way of literature inquiry to investigate the benefits and potential drawbacks of implementing diversifying elements. Once we had sufficient research we utilized FarmDESIGN to confirm our redesign could feed the quality of animals we had selected and NDICEA to check the nitrogen uptake of a specific example of green manure we discuss. This combination of programs plus research has allowed us to give an overview of what the farmer can expect if this approach is implemented.
Results
Alternative Fodder Production -Hedges and Trees
In calculating Livestock Units our assumption is a mature 600-700kg Friesian-Holstein Mix cow producing a 45kg calf and 4,500 litres of milk at 3.6% butterfat is 1 livestock unit. The farmer wants 60 cows, with a restocking rate of 25% which gives us 15 calves (0.34 X 15 = 5.1 LU) and 15 heifers (0.8 X 15 = 12 LU). That gives us a total of 77.1 LU or required appropriate feed from (77.1/1.6) 48.2 hectares of pasturage (Livestock Units, 2018).
One way we suggest to manage this requirement is planting hedgerows of leguminous plants that will increase the nitrogen fixing capabilities of the pasturage they are planted in. We also suggest planting fodder hedges and trees and mixing herbs known to promote lactation and cattle health in the pastures so the cattle can graze their own medicinal needs as well as additional forage.
Hedges are found to have a direct influence of contribution to a higher C/N ratio and effect on the soil organic matter (SOM) by organic matter contribution, thereby contributing to the soil organic carbon (SOC), as well as an anti-erosive effect (Follain, Walter, Legout, Lemercier, & Dutin, 2007). In this sense the hedges operate as a buffer strip, which has also been found to protect the surface water quality by allowing for a higher infiltration capacity relative to arable or pasture land (Christen & Dalgaard, 2013); “riparian buffers retain 30-99% of nitrate N and 20-100% of phosphorus from runoff and shallow groundwater” (p. 53). Ter Linde has variable access to fresh water and is surrounded on most sides by ditches which collect runoff, and both fresh and saline water. The plants suggested herein assist with pulling from the deeper substrate and are saline tolerant.
Different species of trees and shrubs have a different level of contribution to the described effects as well as to multifunctional use in production of feed or other products, such as lumber and fuel. When managed well a woodier fodder has been found to improve protein digestion, lessen parasitic outbreaks and lower methane emissions (Vandermeulen, Ramírez-Restrepo, Beckers, Claessens, & Bindelle, 2018). In terms of time management and farm economics the use of these buffers can work out in a favourable way. Most of the work can be done in the period of lowest on-farm workload and their multi-functional use can lead to returns in yield of feed and extra products as well as possibilities for livestock to stay outside for a longer time. This way it can allow for a diversification of the market, but moreover effective buffers can allow for intensification of the land use (Tsonkova, Böhm, Quinkenstein, & Freese, 2012).
Current research states that tree forage can increase fodder production within a dairy herd. Recommended species are: Alder (Alnus glutinosa), Ash (Fraxinus excelsior), Elm (Ulmus minor), and Willow (Salix spp); all of which are found within the Zeeland landscape. “The intake rate of willow [is] 0.6 and 0.4% of the required dry matter intake for dry and lactating cows respectively. However the intake of...sodium (Na), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn) and iron (Fe) was 2-9% of the daily requirements” (Luske, Altinalmazis, & Roelen, 2017). Which means the fodder balance is not overly affected by adding in these plants, but that they may account for a smaller portion of the feed (esp. in winter) when other feedstock is low and that there may be more worth in their mineral content versus protein or energy.
In the context of the farmscape, it is recommended to plant “tree rows...in a north-south direction... [minimizing the] shade effect. This design offers the highest amount of available tree leaves for browsing and is relatively easy to manage” (Luske, Altinalmazis, & Roelen, 2017). In regards to soil fertility and structure, “earthworm biomass increased by 52% under alder tree rows” (Luske, Altinalmazis, & Roelen, 2017). This increase in biodiversity of soil life can be correlated to an increase in soil aeration and movement of nutrients between the top and subsoils. Planting trees also “assists in building a low carbon and climate resilient economy. Trees enhance carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling, soil drainage and soil stabilization. Four years after planting, we measured an increase in soil organic matter of 0.5% under willow and 0.3% under alder tree rows” (Luske, Altinalmazis, & Roelen, 2017).
As for concerns around tree pests, “infestation with diseases or leaf beetles can be an issue for both willow and alder. In large numbers, leaf beetles can defoliate the tree, and make it less attractive for browsing. Natural enemies like ladybirds, parasitic wasps and lacewings often keep pest populations low. Coppicing is a good method to restore vigour to the tree and help it recover from diseases or pest infestation” (Luske, Altinalmazis, & Roelen, 2017).
Figure 1: The comparisons of macronutrients and micronutrients in willow, alder and grass (Luske, Altinalmazis, & Roelen, 2017).
Gray Alder (Alnus incana), Black Locust (Robnia pseudoacacia), Speckled Alder (Alnus rugosa), and Russian Olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia) (Plants: Nitrogen Fixers for Temperate Climate Permaculture Forest Gardens , 2011) are additional trees that can be grown specifically for the use of fodder and nitrogen fixing capabilities. Recommendations include using the various species as windbreaks where the current landscape shows a deficit as well as corner posts for the newly designed hedges.
Hedges can be made out of these trees or made out of one of the leguminous plants. Special care needs to be taken that fodder hedges can still deter the cattle from moving between pasturages, or electric or barbed wire must be strung between the plants. Russian Pea Shrub (Caragana frutex) is a good fodder crop and nitrogen fixer, but the plant is less effective at deterring cattle so we recommend planting this along a naturally occurring barrier such as a ditch where the cattle will not push through or in the berry field (#10 and #11) where it will make an attractive hedge but can also be cut and carried to the stable easily. A line of electric or barbed wire fencing between the ditch and the shrub will assist in herd management if found to be necessary.
Within the pastures themselves we recommend utilizing the natively growing Seaberry (Hippophae rhamnoides). The sharp thorns are cattle deterrents which will allow for fencing to be removed within the pastures completely. Additional benefits of the plant are it’s nitrogen fixing capabilities, the fact that it handles drought and a higher salinity level than most shrubs, that the foliage provides food and shelter for birds and wildlife (natural pest management), as well as winter forage. However, the most useful benefit may be a harvestable crop of its superfood berries. This creates an additional cash crop for the farmer should they wish to harvest; current market rates are close to 8E a kg (twice that of blueberries).
It should be noted that both male and female plants are needed for berry production in a ratio of 1:6. The shrub will grow to 3-6m tall/wide, and will make a nice privacy screen or security barrier in part shade. It dislikes trimming, and will reduce berry production the year following pruning. One way to contain these shrubs is to mow a wide strip on both sides of the row. keeping it mowed limits the rhizomes and suckers from spreading. Once the soil is healed these plants will be slow growing and easy to manage (Plants: Nitrogen Fixers for Temperate Climate Permaculture Forest Gardens , 2011).
As for the pasturage composition itself, we recommend a mix of the following plants to be used within the mowing fields: Sweetfern (Comptonia peregrina), Sweet Vetch (Hedysarum boreale), Lupine (Lupinus species), Alfalfa (Medicago sativa), Sweet Gale (Myrica gale), Rye Grass (Lolium perenne), Red (Trifolium pratense) and White (Trifolium repens) Clover. The combination will increase nitrogen fixing capabilities, but also biodiversity and feed stores. Mowing when the Alfalfa and Lupine get to 30cm will allow for the farmer to dry the grasses as supplemental or winter feed as well.
According to Bilotta et al., “livestock are capable of consuming … [roughly] 7 kg dry matter per day for heifers to between 14 and 18 kg dry matter per day for dairy cows. Given that dry matter constitutes around 20% of the fresh weight of vegetation, one dairy cow is capable of ingesting 100 kg of fresh plant matter per day. This is clearly a significant quantity of herbage consumption, particularly when the mean net rate of herbage growth is considered to be 60 kg dry matter per hectare, per day” (Bilotta, Brazier, & Haygarth, 2007). This means that calculations need to include an addition 40% of pasturage requirement to make sure there is sufficient feed available.
Within this context, we must also look at how much fodder waste in the form of litter-fall (that being green matter from trees and shrubs which are dropped during grazing on the pasture surface) may affect the larger Nitrogen cycle. “The Emission Factors for perennial ryegrass and white clover range from 0.7 to 3.1%. If such EF values should also occur under field conditions, then [it is] estimate[d] that litter-fall induces an N2O emission rate of 0.3 kg N2O ha−1 yr–1” (Pal, Clough, Kelliher, van Koten, & Sherlock, 2011). Taking all of these factors into account, as well as a way to utilize available pasturage more, we suggest moving all of the heifers to the nature area in summer. This will allow for the remaining herd to be broken up into paddocks of cow/calf pairs and the rest of the herd. Moving the cattle every day or two will allow for new grasses to be eaten and for the soil to rest for several days while the grasses regrow.
Intensification of Pasturage Rotation- Herbs for Health
A review of over 20 scientific articles shows a correlation between feeding dairy cattle herbs and an increase in cattle health and milk quality. In the grazing pastures we recommend sowing the following herbs: Yarrow (Achillea millefolium), Dill (Anethum graveolens), Oregano (Origanum vulgare), Garden Burnet (Sanguisorba minor), Sainfoin (Onobrychis), Cock’s Head (Hedysarum coronarium), Birdsfoot Trefoil (Lotus corniculatus), Ribwort Plantain (Plantago lanceolata), Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum), Caraway (Carum carvi and Nigella sativa), Dandelion (Taraxacum), Parsley (Petroselinum crispum) and Medick (Medicago) (Danish Centre for Food and Agriculture, 2012). These herbs provide additional feed, but more importantly, medicinal uses for the animals. By allowing the cattle to graze as needed, cases of mastitis and other medical concerns will drop and a more balanced diet can be achieved.
When reviewing the literature, we found that generally only a few farmers actively used herbs. To compound the issue, there was very little research as to what the herbs actually accomplished when they were used. In a study of Biodynamic Dairy farms in Denmark only 18% of farmers (66 of 350) responded that they actively used herbs in their pastures (Smidt & Brimer, 2005). Most species used included Caraway, Parsley, and Chicory. They generally stated that they used the herbs as a source of minerals or that the herbs controlled bloat or parasites, although they could not site specific sources where such information was gleaned. A 1993 report by Moss and Vlassoff did find that a significant percentage of chicory in pastures reduces the nematode burden in sheep, yet no literature was mentioned for cattle (Smidt & Brimer, 2005).
The few research projects were herbs were tested and evaluated focused on milk production, mastitis remediation, and blood work. While interesting, the general overview is that yes, herbs do something, but the results are unclear as to exactly what.
Medical issues such as subclinical mastitis and the effect of herbs on the quality of milk was conducted in Indonesia in 2011. Black Cumin, Curcuma Zeodharia, Curcuma Mangga, and Curcuma Aeruginosa were tested to find out their effects on milk yield, quality, and subclinical mastitis. “Subclinical Mastitis is associated with milk reduction of between 10-40% and is often shown to inflame the udder and teat” (Nurdin, Amelia, & Makin, 2011). The herbs chosen for the test have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory characteristics and are traditional in Indonesian Folk Remedies. In the study, twenty Fries Holland lactating cows were given treatments in five forms: a) non-herb control, b) 0.03% body weight Black Cumin, c) 0.02% body weight of Curcuma Zeodharia, d) 0.06% body weight of Curcuma Mangga, and e) 0.02% body weight of Curcuma Aeruginosa.
The results of the tests showed that Black Cumin (b) and Curcuma Aeruginosa (e) had a highly significant effect on the increase of milk yield (2.83-4.86% respectively) while Curcuma Aeruginosa (e) showed a decrease of 4.5% in milk lactose and 23.89% decrease in milk protein, but also a decrease in mastitis (p<0.05) and milk fat (p>0.05). In general the use of these herbs decreased mastitis and increased yield and quality (Nurdin, Amelia, & Makin, 2011).
Table 1: Milk yield, Milk Fat, Milk Protein and Milk Lactose (Nurdin, Amelia, & Makin, 2011).
Another study looked at what changes occur in the fatty acids in milk if herbs were added into the grazing rotation. Fatty acids are important for normal human metabolism and assist in the development of brain, nervous, and immune systems. it is recommended that a person’s diet consist of 3-6% Fatty acids, with Omega-6 being twice as high as omega-3 (Omega-3 fatty acid, 2018). N-3 fatty acids within milk were shown to increase two-fold when feeding herbs compared to clover or TMR (total mixed ration based on silage and concentrate) increasing to 0.8 compared to 0.4 and 0.3 g/kg in milk. N-6 fatty acids were shown to increase to 1.4 vs. 0.9 and 1.0 g/kg. Transfer efficiency was doubled for n-3 and increased by 28% for n-6 in comparison with clover rations (Petersen, Soegaard, & Jensen, 2011). The current opinion of several medical organizations is that a higher Omega-3:6 ratio is better for our collective health (Simopoulos, 2002).
Finally, in Japan, tests were done to see the effect of herbs on blood metabolites, hormones, antioxidant activity, IgG concentration, and ruminal fermentation in Holstein Steers. The herbal treatment consisted of the steers regular diet as the control and then the control plus a) peppermint, b) clove, and c) lemongrass. The highest general increase came from an addition of 5% of the daily diet on a dry matter basis of clove powder. The regular diet consisted of 50% timothy hay, 42.2% flaked corn, 8% soybean meal, 1.2% mineral mix (110g P, 220 g CA, 100g Mg per kg), 0.3% vitamin mix (1200mg vitamin A, 10mg vitamin D, and 20,000mg of DL-α-tocopherol acetate per kg), and 0.3% of salt. In a previous study by Hosoda et al., 2005, “it was found that the feeding of peppermint to lactating dairy cattle decreased nutrient digestibility, changed energy metabolism, and decreased methane production” (Hosoda, Kuramoto, Eruden, Nishida, & Shioya, 2006). It should be noted that the total dry matter intake in the diet with herbs was significantly lower (p<0.05) than just eating herbs and that ammonia concentrations tended to decrease (p<0.10). The report found that feeding the three herbs mentioned showed changes within the steer’s general health, with clove showing the greatest gains in decreasing ammonia concentrations while peppermint decreased nutrient digestibility. We then recommend that peppermint should be left off the herbal rotation for lactating cows and clove added (Hosoda, Kuramoto, Eruden, Nishida, & Shioya, 2006).
Overall, herbs were shown to have effects on cattle’s health, but there are a few items to note. 1) some herbs need to be added as supplemental powders, which could be expensive and difficult to obtain; 2) some herbs are known to change the taste of the milk, which is not desirable if the milk is to be sold as it is; 3) while some benefits may arrive (decreased methane for instance), they may be paired with undesirable secondary effects (decreased digestibility). Hence, we recommend only adding in herbs that would be found in a native meadow and sparingly using external medicinal herbs (like cloves) on cattle that have been taken out of the dairy rotation.
Intensification of Crop Rotation- Green Manure for Profit
In regards to crop rotation, we looked at potential green manures and cover crops that could assist with soil building. Fertilization in organic settings can be achieved in a variety of ways including usage of cover crops by cut-and-carry fertilizers, grass/clover, alfalfa/clover, farm yard manure, slurry, and by green manures (van der Burgt, Rietema, & Bus, 2017). We chose the potatoes as our test field and looked into what benefits a green manure (that is a plant specifically grown to be chopped up and ploughed in at the end of the growing season) could give. It is known that a cash crop undersown with a nitrogen fixing cover crop will assist in keeping the soil covered during winter, and that in the spring, the farmer’s responsibility is to then mix the cover crop into the soil. Some farmers use a green manure and a fermented amendment during spring planting. In this system, the decomposition is sped up and two weeks later the primary cash crop can be sown after decomposition has started in the topsoil (Gerbrandy, 2014). The Fermented Plant Juice (FPJ) amendment can be made in a variety of ways, but generally follow the format for making green silage, which can serve as a winter feed as well.
We take the view that the farmer would prefer growing and ploughing his green manure instead of taking the added time and expense of creating a FPJ product. Instead we recommend the brassica White Mustard for both a green manure and cash crop. The seeds can be harvested and then the plant material turned into the soil, increasing OM and resistance against white beet-cyst nematode (Heterodera schachtii). This is especially productive if followed by a crop of sugar beets, as the nematode population can be decreased 70-90% following White Mustard (White Mustard, 2018).
When reviewing the nitrogen balance available in this rotation, we find that a grass, potatoes, mustard, sugar beet rotation without fertilizer has issues with N-uptake at the end of the potato and end of the sugar beets periods. To counter this, applications of Farm Yard Manure (20ton/ha) at point A and Dairy Slurry (5ton/ha) at point B need to be added. The offset of manure application costs and labour against a lower nematode population should be worth the additional labour, but only if the sugar beet crop is especially valuable to the farmer.
Figure 2: Grass, Potatoes, Mustard, and Sugar Beet Rotation without fertilizer
Figure 3: Grass, Potatoes, Mustard, and Sugar Beet Rotation with fertilizer
Berry Production
The farmer has stated that he wishes to convert Pasture fields #10 and #11 to berry cultivation. We looked at the market rates and potential for tourist involvement he could get with this design. The fields would be broken up into 5 equally sized smaller fields with the Russian Pea Shrub used as hedges. This allows for a pretty, unique windbreak and a way for the farmer to close off different fields as needed. It also allows for a location for the fodder crop for the cattle that will have minimum damage by the animals and is in the closest fields to the stable.
We looked at four different commercial berry crops (Raspberry, Blackberry, Blueberry, and Black Currants) and have three different recommendations. 1) To maximize profit and minimize farmer input, Blueberries give the best rate of return. A farmer (in 2014) could expect to have a return of €24.863/ha with expenses for fertilizers, fuel, working capital, temporary labour, transportation, as well as fixed costs (totalling €21.526). This leaves the farmer with an income of €3.337/ha (Roelofs & Zmarlicki, 2014). 2) To minimize farm labour, Black Currants require the least number of hours, however, market rate is very low and water requirements may be higher than anticipated. 3) A mixture of the berries may provide the best returns, as wild cultivars of blackberry and raspberry (currently found in several places on the farm), could be transplanted and interspersed with purchased sweeter cultivars. This may be the most economically feasible if the goal is to minimize initial cultivation costs.
Tabel 2: The market rates versus the expenses and labour hours for different berries (Roelofs & Zmarlicki, 2014).
Flower Strip Utilization
After a review of the available literature, it is our recommendation that flower strips of 5m width be added to the non-hedgerow sections of the crop fields. A study from Scotland has shown that including a diverse wildflower zone on the edges of croplands can increase the frequency of pollinator visits 25%; with 67% of those visits being a combination of wild and commercial bumblebees (Bombus spp.) (Feltham, Park, Minderman, & Goulson, 2015). With roughly 84% of European crops benefiting from animal pollination, for example, strawberries pollinated by insects have been shown to increase their commercial value by 39% relative to wind pollination alone, including wildflowers in non-arable portions of the field makes financial sense.
A study by Blaauw and Isaacs (2014) found that medium to large flower strips increased the number of pollinators on highbush blueberries (Feltham, Park, Minderman, & Goulson, 2015) while additional studies using flowers with wheat show a reduction in pests (cereal leaf beetle); 40% of larvae and 53% of next generation) and up to 61% reduction in plant damage caused by the beetle (Tschumi, Albrecht, Entling, & Jacot, 2015). The farms bordering Ter Linde grow wheat, and if the farmer wishes to include a berry field, flowerstrips at various locations to provide habitat and food sources for both solitary and non-bees, predator wasps, lacewings, and other beneficial insects can increase their range into fields they may not typically visit.
While potatoes benefit minimally from pollinator species, berries and fruit, of which the farmer grows, benefit substantially (List of crop plants pollinated by bees, 2018). Since the farmer utilizes orchards within his crop rotation scheme and shall be converting pasturage on fields 10 and 11 to berry production, it is our recommendation that adding in various flower strips can only benefit his crops. The areas we are suggesting do not remove current arable crop land, but make use of land along drainage zones, ditches, and hedge zones. The primary zones are along the edges of the arable crops, where the cattle would not graze them. For example, along the border of field 9 near the rode and the drainage ditch. That allows for the tractor to move freely, but still allows for pollinator presence.
FarmDESIGN Model Feed Balance
Finally, we took the initial FarmDESIGN model and changed the margins to incorporate the various berries, flower strips, trees, and hedges mentioned above. This meant our total arable land and pasture land was decreased by around 6 hectares. In actuality, the current onsite farm is closer to our design on the crops than the initial model, as the areas we selected are currently either fallow or a wildflower-zone near ditches. Incorporating trees can only be done within FarmDESIGN in strips, which we used in two locations at the borders of fields 4/5 and 9/10, because the program is not designed to add in a single tree at a location, although we do recommend adding the trees in as windbreaks were ever there is a gap in the current landscape, or as corners in the pasture hedges.
We did manage to find a balance with the feed requirements (as shown below), but only by incorporating large numbers of concentrates (116,000kg). We do not find this encouraging, but the number can be reduced through a reduction of livestock if self-sufficiency is the farmer’s primary goal. We stayed with the number of cattle the farmer mentioned during the appreciative inquiry, but it is important to note this number is not sustainable on the allocated pasturage.
Optimal Goal in both periods is to have the Dry Matter intake and structure with amounts less than or equal to 0; Energy (VEM) -5 to +5; Protein (DVE) 0-30; and Structure greater than 100. Our ration has slightly higher protein and dry matter ratios, but this can be altered slightly during the actual feeding of the cattle with less rich pasturage.
Table 3: The feed balance for the redesign of the farm
Conclusion & Discussion
In conclusion, while there have been several studies on the benefits or concerns of using flowers, hedges, trees, and herbs, the general opinion is that they all provide indirect beneficial ecosystem services and minimal direct benefits. It is therefore our recommendation that these items should be implemented slowly, as part of the seasonal tasks of sowing and maintenance the farmer would typically be doing. The berries can be added in a section at a time, with field 11 to be converted first to allow for continued pasture use by the current cattle until the quantity is reduced to appropriate numbers. Flowers can be added during the normal spring planting and hedges a field at a time to maintain the herd’s current grazing area. Diversification of the farm is hard to quantify in monetary, or even chemical terms. The literature describes a trade-off between diversified systems resulting in several ecosystem services on the one hand and and higher yielding conventional systems on the other hand. Common sense is held up by the literature, but not in concrete terms. Beneficial insects should be promoted, diverse ecosystems encouraged, but there is little hard data on what exactly they do besides “benefit” the environment. However it becomes apparent from the literature that when well managed a diversified system can build up the yields in the longer term, thereby minimizing the effects of the yield loss of the space that is used up for diversification. The addition of nitrogen fixing plants and trees, flowers for pollinators, and multifunctional hedges can benefit the farmer and that proper selection of the various plants could lead to happier, healthier cattle, better crop yields, and an increase in profit from new tourist ventures and opening up the local market.
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Appendix 1
(Institute of Medicine, 2006)
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